Lumosity for your future offspring?

Could the brain training you do today help the memory of your children – even before conception? Research published today suggests that – surprisingly – this might actually be possible.

A study of brain function in mice reveals that a stimulating environment improves the memory of their offspring. If this improvement also occurs in humans, a mother’s youthful experiences may help shape her childrens’ ability to learn. Here’s the press release, with the paper reference below the fold:

Newswise — A study reveals that the severity of learning disorders may
depend not only on the child’s environment but also – remarkably – on
the mother’s environment when she was young. The study in
memory-deficient mice, published in the February 4 issue of The
Journal of Neuroscience, was led by Larry Feig, PhD, professor of
biochemistry at Tufts University School of Medicine and member of the
biochemistry and neuroscience programs at the Sackler School of
Graduate Biomedical Sciences at Tufts University.

The researchers studied the brain function of pre-adolescent mice with
a genetically-created defect in memory. When these young mice were
enriched by exposure to a stimulating environment – including novel
objects, opportunities for social interaction and voluntary exercise –
for two weeks, the memory defect was reversed. The work showed that
this enhancement was remarkably long-lasting because it was passed on
to the offspring even though the offspring had the same genetic
mutation and were never exposed to an enriched environment.

Previous research has shown that environmental exposures during
pregnancy can affect offspring. “A striking feature of this study is
that enrichment took place during pre-adolescence, months before the
mice were even fertile, yet the effect reached into the next
generation,” said Feig.

“The offsprings’ improved memory was not the result of better
nurturing by mothers who were enriched when they were young. When the
offspring were raised by non-enriched foster mothers, the offspring
maintained the beneficial effect,” said co-author Junko Arai, PhD,
postdoctoral associate in Feig’s laboratory.

“The effect lasted until adolescence, when it waned, suggesting that
this process is designed specifically to aid the young brain,”
continued Shaomin Li, PhD, MD, co-author, former postdoctoral
associate in Feig’s laboratory, now at Brigham and Women’s Hospital.

“This example of ‘inheritance of acquired characters,’ was first
proposed by Lamarck in the early 1800s. However, it is incompatible
with classical Mendelian genetics, which states that we inherit
qualities from our parents through specific DNA sequences they
inherited from their parents. We now refer to this type of inheritance
as epigenetics, which involves environmentally-induced changes in the
structure of DNA and the chromosomes in which DNA resides that are
passed on to offspring,” said Feig.

Previous research by Feig and his team showed that a relatively brief
exposure to an enriched environment in both normal and
memory-deficient mice unlocks an otherwise latent biochemical control
mechanism that enhances a cellular process in nerve cells called
long-term potentiation (LTP), which is known to be involved in
learning and memory. This enhancement was detected in pre-adolescent
mice but not in adult mice, reflecting the brain’s higher plasticity
in the young.

Feig concluded that the transgenerational inheritance of the effect of
an enriched environment may be a mechanism that has evolved to protect
one’s offspring from deleterious effects of sensory deprivation, which
may be particularly potent in the young and exacerbated in the
learning disabled.

Junko Arai and Shaomin Li, first authors, contributed equally to the
paper. Dean M. Hartley, PhD, of Rush University Medical Center is also
an author.

The work was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the
National Institutes of Health because these findings were derived as
an offshoot of the Feig lab’s long-term experience working on Ras
proteins that are involved in cancer. Fundamental principles of how
Ras proteins function gained by studying its role in cancer expedited
subsequent studies on Ras function in the brain. This work highlights
how major breakthroughs can arise by allowing researches to follow new
leads that cross disciplines. The work was also supported by the Tufts
Center for Neuroscience Research.

Arai J, Li S, Hartley DM, and Feig LA. The Journal of Neuroscience.
2009. (February 4); 29(5): 1496-1502. “Transgenerational Rescue of a
Genetic Defect in Long-Term Potentiation and Memory Formation by
Juvenile Enrichment.” Published online February 3, 2009, doi:
10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5057-08.2009

About Tufts University School of Medicine
Tufts University School of Medicine and the Sackler School of Graduate
Biomedical Sciences at Tufts University are international leaders in
innovative medical education and advanced research. The School of
Medicine and the Sackler School are renowned for excellence in
education in general medicine, special combined degree programs in
business, health management, public health, bioengineering, and
international relations, as well as basic and clinical research at the
cellular and molecular level. Ranked among the top in the nation, the
School of Medicine is affiliated with six major teaching hospitals and
more than 30 health care facilities. The Sackler School undertakes
research that is consistently rated among the highest in the nation
for its impact on the advancement of medical science.

Your Nervous System at Work

By Gregory Kellett, a cognitive neuroscience researcher at SFSU and UCSF, and science writer for Lumos Labs.

Ever wonder about the workings of your nervous system?  As mentioned in our previous post on cognition, the nervous system is responsible for integrating and processing information about your surroundings while directing action towards the achievement of goals; whether this be eating a tuna sandwich, serenading a lover or getting out of the way of a speeding bus. Physically, it is made up of your brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

Let’s look at the structural components of this biological orchestra.

Neurons and Glia
The basic functional units of the nervous system include neurons (cells who’s primary job is to communicate) and glia (cells which support neurons and their communication).

The average brain has about 100 billion neurons and about 9 times as many glia.

Neurons (with the help of glia) connect and coordinate senses such as sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste with the activity of your muscles and organs. They are either taking information in for integration, communicating with other neurons for information processing, or sending information out to generate action.

Glial cells (of which there are multiple types) do a variety of tasks to support the functioning of neurons, including removing waste, providing nutritional and structural support and facilitating connections. Some glia have also been shown to communicate with neurons, as well as each other, in order to help coordinate neuronal activity.

Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Synapses are the actual locations at which neurons communicate with each other, and a typical neuron has about 10,000 of them.

Neurons communicate at synapses through the use of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals sent between neurons as well as the muscles and organs they work with. They attach to receptors on receiving cells, translating into one of three basic types of messages:

•    Excitatory- Encouraging connected neurons and other related cells to “pass it on” or activate; perhaps prompting you to swat at that fly after being buzzed by the umpteenth time or dilate your pupils when the lights go out.

•    Inhibitory- Suggesting that the receiving cell not continue passing on the signal or take action. This could be involved in the shutting down of appetite in response to the non-acquired taste of anchovies or the ability to ignore the radio in your car while figuring out how to get un-lost.

• Adaptive- Instructing a neuron to change something in its structure or the way it functions. This is the basis of plasticity where neurons may reduce or increase the number of connections, move them around and or adjust their sensitivity; all of which are part of the learning process.

Neural Networks

Neurons which collaborate on a specific physiological function, such as hearing high pitches, moving your pinky or remembering to take the trash out, are considered to be part of a shared neural network. Typically these functionally related neurons will use only one or two of the over 100 different types of neurotransmitters available. Neurotransmitters, however, can and often are associated with several types of neural networks.

Serotonin is an example of a neurotransmitter involved with the regulation of multiple systems including mood, appetite, temperature, pain sensation and sleep.

Dopamine is the neurotransmitter of choice for neural networks dealing with reward, such as the feeling you get after winning an egg toss or eating a delicious meal. It is however also used by circuits involving memory and attention.

Complexity
As much as we do know about how our nervous systems work, there is still much more to be discovered. One of the many areas where little is known involves how different neural networks, responsible for such diverse tasks as detecting movement, recognizing objects and generating action, can communicate between themselves. The mechanisms involved in coordinating the information from different specialized neural systems into a seamless experience of say, catching a ball, is still a mystery.  This is referred to as the binding problem, and although there are plenty of theories, there are no clear answers as of yet.

As you can see, the interactions between our neurons, neurotransmitters and constantly shifting surroundings are complex…..especially when they are trying to grasp the complexity of interactions between neurons, neurotransmitters and constantly shifting surroundings;)

New Brain Game – Top Chimp!

We’re on a roll! Following the debut of Name Tag last month, we are now ready to release Top Chimp, a brain game that sharpens visual attention and trains working memory. We think it’s more fun than a barrel of…well, monkeys, but would love to have your feedback before the game becomes part of the regular set of brain exercises. Please find the game here http://games.lumosity.com/top_chimp.html and send any suggestions to games@lumosity.com.

The Biology of Learning

By Gregory Kellett, a cognitive neuroscience researcher at SFSU and UCSF, and science writer for Lumos Labs.

The field of neuroscience is just beginning to understand some of the physiological foundations of how we learn. The following is a basic breakdown of what we think we might know.

Learning is the process by which new knowledge or skills sticks to our brains.  Its functional “sticky” unit is the neuron. Neurons are cells specially adapted to communicate with each other. Everything we experience is reflected in the brain by neurons which communicate to form what are called neural networks.  These networks can be pictured as overlapping 3-D road maps which span brain regions responsible for processing everything from the bitter-sweet taste of dark chocolate to why your neighbor is such a grump. As we learn, these neural “road maps” interact and shift while also fading or strengthening in relation to our experiences.

Whether it be recognizing a co-worker or changing a flat tire, learning entails the formation and strengthening of connections or synapses between neurons. Brief experiences typically leave connections tracing an ephemeral neural network. This might be envisioned as crisscrossing deer paths. Which, if left unused, fade quickly.

After repeated exposure to a learning experience, like the second time we change that flat tire, the associated neuronal connections are reinforced, resembling more a network of single lane country roads than deer paths.  And when it comes to daily practice and expertise in a skill, one can imagine that the guy at the local tire shop would have the neuronal equivalent of intersecting super-highways.

This strengthening of neural network connections is thought to be the physiological basis of learning.

Changing, strengthening and creating new neural networks tends to get more difficult with age. There is some research, however, indicating that it is possible to maintain our ability to learn, and possibly even ward off or lessen the impact of certain types of dementia. It appears that a significant amount of age related cognitive decline can be attributed to a tendency to stay within pre-established comfort zones; shying away from new and challenging experiences, which typically push the brain to grow (or at least not shrink as fast).

Here are some simple tips that could help maintain our brain’s ability to adapt.

• Stay Social- Reaching out and staying connected with friends and family engages the mind.

• Break a Sweat- It’s not only good for your body but your head as well.  Regular aerobic exercise is even capable of stimulating the formation of new neurons.

• Relax- Certain stress hormones are damaging to the brain in excess.

• Seek Challenges- Take that swing dance class, it’ll keep you on your toes in more ways than one. Do a variety of the Lumosity brain games – don’t just focus on your favorites.

• Eat Fruits and Veggies- You’ve heard it a million times before; this time it’s because they contain anti-oxidants and other substances protective of your head’s contents.

• Review Your Day- Take some evening time to review what you did, who you met, and what you read about. Start with the present and work your way back to breakfast or vice a versa.

Berkeley’s Mind Reader

By Lumos Labs Science Associate, Paul Li, MS Neuroscience.

Movies like Being John Malkovich are based on the idea that one might be able to experience what another human’s mind is visualizing. Most would think that such movies are pure fantasy and science fiction, but researchers at U.C. Berkeley are one step closer to making this a reality.

Using a computational model calibrated to each individual subject, Professor Jack Gallant and his research team were able to use brain activity (measured with fMRI) to identify which of a large set of images was seen by a subject. Importantly, none of the images in the set had been previously seen by the subject, demonstrating the ability to generalize to novel situations. Though performance isn’t yet perfect, it’s impressive. Accuracy ranges from 80% when viewing 1,000 images, to 90% accuracy when viewing 120 images.

Dr. Gallant said, “there may theoretically be sufficient information available to decode memory, imagery and dreams some day, but it will likely be many decades before this is really possible.”

Working memory and neurogenesis at the Bay Area Neuroscience Gathering

By Lumos Labs Science Associate Paul Li, MS Neuroscience.

Last Friday afternoon, UCSF held their annual Bay Area Neuroscience Gathering (BANG) where local grad students and neuroscientists showcased their research posters to the Bay Area neuroscience community. Universities included UCSF, UC Davis, UC Berkeley, San Francisco State and Stanford. Lumos Labs presented an investigation into web-based experimentation and cognitive training.

Though not many posters were directly related to brain health, I wanted to report the ones that were of relevance and of possible interest to you:

Wesley Clapp, PhD at UCSF found subjects consolidate information differently in their working memory when they know they will face distractors than without any distractors present. They looked at two electroencephalography (EEG) signals that are associated particularly with memory, attention, and perception: the P100 and the N170 (these are electrical signals from the brain that occur at 100 and 170 milliseconds after the event has happened). Clapp and colleagues found that these latencies are modulated differently depending on if the information presented to the subject is relevant or not. He also showed that the amount subjects pay attention to irrelevant information directly correlates with their impairment in working memory performance. To learn more, see Clapp’s research poster.

Leslie Meltzer, a Ph.D student working with Karl Deisseroth at Stanford is studying the effects of antidepressants in rodent models of depression. Meltzer and colleagues found that the therapeutic effects of antidepressants required the growth of new neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region important for memory formation. This suggests that antidepressants might improve mood by increasing the production of new neurons. During Alzheimer’s disease, neurons in the hippocampus begin to die. Could antidepressants be helpful for fighting off dementia? It’s possible, but there are too many unknowns to have a clear picture. Bear in mind that a combination of mental and physical exercises, the types of food we eat, and social activities we do all matter in shaping the condition of our brain.

Fun stuff that’s good for your brain #7: Humor and Laughter

By contributing author Aimee Fountain, who splits her time between Lumos Labs and teaching at American River College.

So this man walks into a bar…

You’ll get unique – and potentially beneficial – activity in your brain if you think something is funny…and maybe even if you don’t, as long as you laugh. While extensive research has been done on the brain mechanisms of negative emotions like depression, fear and anger, positive emotions are often overlooked with the rationale “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” New studies on how humor and laughter influence the brain are leading to an understanding of how positive emotions (and even their simulation) affect brain mechanisms, and this research has provided a broader perspective on new therapies for emotion disorders and pain.

When people were subjected to a battery of jokes and comics, images of their brain activity showed a sort of laugh belt in the brain, running through parts of the frontal lobe, which is important for cognitive processing; the supplementary motor area, important for movement; and the nucleus accumbens, associated with pleasure. Proof of the supplementary motor area’s role in laughter was found accidentally while using electrical stimulation to search for the cause of a young girl’s seizures. Electrically stimulating her motor area triggered laughter.

No longer content to amuse themselves by poking patients’ supplementary motor areas, scientists are attempting to use their findings to determine how humor processing may tie to disease. For example, researchers are examining brain activity in depressed people to see if their humor processing ability is impaired. If it is, then boosting the system’s activity may help depression. Humor seems to give people a natural high since it activates the same reward centers in the brain as euphoric drugs. Also, evidence suggests that viewing funny videos can reduce feelings of pain, relax muscle tension, and prevent negative stress reactions. Beyond brain stimulation, the rest of the body also gets a lift from laughter. Muscles are coordinated. Blood pressure and heart rate are increased. Breathing patterns change. Catecholamine and hormone levels are reduced. And the immune system is boosted. Even faked laughter helps the brain and body. While the conscious mind knows that false laughter is just that, the body can’t tell the difference, and endorphins are released and the physiological benefits occur as they do during genuine mirth. So, when that terrible party guest comes and regales everyone with hilarious stories about his abhorrent dog, your politeness in laughing may benefit more than just your relationship.

Brain processing speed and intelligence

There seems to be some confusion about what we mean by ‘processing speed’. Even among scientists and others in the field there are a variety of understandings of the concept, spanning from the speed of neuron-to-neuron communication to how quickly one can access stored memories. In this article, neuroscientist Lizzie Buchen explains brain processing speed and why speed of processing is critical to many other cognitive processes and even intelligence.

Some of the key points covered:

• The speed of performing basic cognitive operations is highly correlated with measures of intelligence.
• Processing speed may affect performance on all higher cognitive tasks
• Decreases in processing speed may be the primary factor underlying cognitive changes that arise with age

Although there may not be one single factor underlying “intelligence,” processing speed and efficiency are among the most basic and pervasive components. Other factors, including working memory and executive functions, are also likely to be involved.